Foundations+Theme+4

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**Before the development of agriculture, known as the Neolithic revolution, the "economy" of the human species was limited for the most part to basic tribal interaction. Trade was also limited to the very local level and no apparent system of organization developed. As a result, the economic contributions of men and women were about equal: men hunted and women gathered, making about the same contribution of goods. Then, perhaps as early as 10,000 BC, agriculture developed and drastically changed the course of civilization in all regions of the world. Agriculture developed in the core regions of Mesoamerica, the Andes, West Africa, the Middle East, North China, India, and Southeast Asia. It then spread slowly from these areas to the rest of the world. Because of this people became sedentary, living in groups that depended on agricultural cultivation. They also began to specialize, pursuing a particular line of study or work. No longer was each person a hunter-gather. People became merchants, artisans, farmers, and craftsman. This changed of the nature of "economy," because people began producing more varied goods, developing more elaborate labor systems, and encouraging more trade interaction, both at the local, regional and global level.** ======

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**The development of sedentary agriculture and specialization eventually led to the creation of civilization. There were four main regions of early civilization, centered around river valleys:[| Egypt (around the Nile), the Indus River Valley Civilization, the Huanghe River Valley Civ., and finally, Mesopotamian civilization in the Tigris-Euphrates region]. Civilization happened to develop in these regions for one reason: they were prime agricultural regions. Agriculture was the base of their economic systems. Also, because of the need for coordinated irrigation, "civilized" societies developed class systems that limited the opportunities of some people. Slavery was a widespread labor system. In Sumeria, land was worked almost exclusively by slaves. In fact, warfare remained vital to ensure a stable supply (of slaves). It is also believed that the Great Pyramids of Egypt were built by huge "armies" of slave laborers. Several key economic advancements also occurred during this period. In Sumeria silver was adopted as a means of exchange for buying and selling. Agricultural production was increased, also in Sumeria, through the use of fertilizers and wheeled carts.[| Some argue that writing was developed in Mesopatamia as a means of economical record keeping]. An early international network developed during this period. Mesopotamia served as an intermediary between regions and had contacts with both the Indus River Valley and Egypt. There is also evidence that long-distance trade occurred. Afghan lapis lazuli and Mesopotamian cylinder seals were found in early Egyptian tombs, according to [|Michael A. Hoffman in his book "Egypt Before the Pharaohs"]. [|Egyptian civilization also had contact with the Mediterranean island of Crete and the peoples south along the Nile in Kush and Ethiopia]. There was also a fair amount of cultural and intellectual transaction via these contacts. The Huanghe River Valley was relatively isolated compared to the other regions of early civilization.** ======

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**The nature of economies around the world changed once again when the River Valley Civilizations transitioned into classical ones. By the classical period agriculture had pervaded many previously unreached regions of the world and offered the possibility of a more elaborate world network. Trade occurred along silk routes from the east to the [|Mediterranean] and vice verse. The trade was mostly conducted by nomadic peoples, but there were also state sponsored expeditions (from Classical China to India, for example). This expansion of the world network brought into contact peoples who were previously untouched by civilization. The expansion of Classical civilizations, whether through military conquest, cultural conquest, or [|influence through trade], brought into the world network regions such as north and western Europe, North Africa, the Yangtze River region, and many others. Wealthy Greco-Romans had a taste for Chinese luxury goods, and these tastes were fulfilled by trade. The classical civilizations, unlike the River Valley civilizations, were more interested in and aware of what existed outside their borders. This was somewhat caused by a need for expansion, to feed the appetites (literally) of their growing populations. (For information on trade routes and exchanged goods, see pg 64 of //World Civilizations: The Global Experience, Fourth Edition)//** ======

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**The Classical period also saw a change in the labor systems that defined economies in civilized regions. However, each classical civilization utilized a different system of labor, as well as different forms of agriculture. In China, Confucian philosophy promoted ideas that enforced the position of the peasants as laboring "vigorously at their husbandry to serve their superiors" (//World Civilizations: The Global Experience, Fourth Edition,// 41//).// In India, laborers were members of the fourth tier of the caste system. They had less status than laborers in China, due to Confucian beliefs held there, but they were not slaves. They were comparable to the serfs of medieval Europe. In the Mediterranean, many people were "free farmers". However, they often became indebted to landlords for various reasons. There was also prevalent use of [|slaves] for agricultural and mining, and, as seen in ancient Sumeria, the need for slaves facilitated military conquest (more so than China or India). There was also some competition between free farmers and Roman estate owners who utilized slave labor, tenant farmers or paid laborers; which invariably pressured free farmers who could not compete with this forced labor.** ======

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**The role of merchants in classical societies also differed from nation to nation. In China, merchants were considered below peasants in status. This is interesting because merchants played a very active role in the Chinese economy, but is understandable when taking into consideration Confucian viewpoints held at that time. The Classical Chinese, because of Confucian philosophy, consider being a merchant an ennoble occupation, due to the fact that merchants produce no goods to contribute to the overall good, and live off the hard work of others. In Classical India, unlike Classical China, merchants had high status. They were in the third highest caste and enjoyed "the flexibility of the Hindu ethic". Indian emphasis on trade and merchant activity was far greater than China and the Mediterranean during this period. Indian merchants were extremely active and traveled far and wide. The Mediterranean was somewhere in between these two regarding emphasis on merchant activity. Merchants in the Mediterranean were often foreigners, but the Greeks and Romans had no philosophical qualms against lives dedicated to moneymaking, and therefore, especially in Rome, merchants held decently high status.** ======

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**Agricultural production also varied from region to region China had two core agricultural regions: the grain growing Huanghe region and the rice growing Yangtze region. This diversity (two types of agriculture) encouraged population growth. India also had two main agricultural regions, the Indus and Ganges river valleys. In the northern mountains, a herding economy took root, and in the southern coastal rim, a trading and seafaring economy arose. India's separate regions help to explain it's economic diversity. Likewise, in the Mediterranean, geography played a huge role agricultural production, and therefore economy. In Greece and much of Italy, soil conditions were not ideal for grain growing, even though it was a staple food. They increasingly attempted to transition to olive and grape cultivation. Searches for suitable grain growing locations was a prime factor leading to efforts to establish an empire. Greek city-states maintained colonies in Sicily and the Middle East, to gain access to grain production. They would trade, in exchange for grain, not only olive oil and wine but also manufactured products and silver. Rome utilized the Sicilian grain fields and also created colonies in North Africa dedicated to grain production.** ======

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**Several key economic technological advancements also occurred during this period. In China, Ox-drawn plows were introduced around 300 B.C.E. This greatly increased production. Many advancements were also made in iron mining, textile and pottery production. Chinese philosophy tends to emphasize [|technological advancement] for practical purposes, which is why so many advancements were made that directly effected the economy. In India, new uses for chemistry were invented, and steel making techniques were improved upon. India also became known for its textile production. Textiles were traded across Eurasia. This is not necessarily a technological advancement, but in the Mediterranean, because of the importance of commercial farming, there was a lot of state sponsored grain trade, often over water. These advancements helped develop strong economies during the classical period.** ======

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**Some common themes exist throughout this period. From the [|Neolithic Revolution] to 600 C.E., there was an almost constant widening of the world network. As time progressed and civilization developed, more regions were drawn into contact with this network. Trade and interaction between nations steadily developed. Also, all economies of this period were based off agriculture, and the strength of a nation's economy depended directly on the strength of it's agricultural base. Because of this, soil fertility, and labor availability effected patterns of expansion and conquest. For example, Greco-Roman civilization colonized Sicily and North Africa to have access to grain producing regions and in Sumeria, conflict was a necessity to ensure a steady supply of agricultural slave labor. Labor systems, though varied from region to region, also shared some commonalities. The majority of civilizations during this period employed some variety of forced labor. In India, the land was worked by a low class. In this way, not having a range of occupational choices or upward caste movement, certain people were required to work the land. This may not be forced labor, and could, along with Classical China, be considered an exception, but life for laborers across the board was an arduous. Finally, technological advancement often affected economic strength greatly, as seen in a plethora of examples from the use of silver as an exchange for buying and selling in Sumeria to the introduction of the ox-drawn plow in China. In the foundations period, economy changed from basic tribal interaction before the Neolithic Revolution, to intricate and highly developed systems in the Classical period and beyond. This is an amazing transition.** ======

Curious about what happened next? Learn about economy in the Post-Classical period...